Man, the Animals, and the Divine

Οἶμαι γὰρ ἐκ τῆς ἀρχῆς ταύτης καὶ τὰ καθ' ἕκαστον πάθη, οἷον ἐκ τινος πηγῆς συνδοθέντα πλημμυρεῖν ἐν τῇ ἀνθρωπίνῃ ζωῇ. Τεκμήριον δὲ τῶν λόγων, ἡ τῶν παθημάτων συγγένεια, κατὰ τὸ ἶσον ἡμῖν τε καὶ τοῖς ἀλόγοις ἐμφαινομένη. Οὐ γὰρ δὴ θέμις τῇ ἀνθρωπίνῃ φύσει, τῇ κατὰ τὸ θεῖον εἶδος μεμορφω μένῃ, τῆς ἐμπαθοῦς διαθέσεως προσμαρτυρεῖν τὰς πρώτας ἀρχάς. Ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ προεισῆλθεν εἰς τὸν κόσμον τοῦτον ἡ τῶν ἀλόγων ζωὴ, ἔσχε δέ τι διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν τῆς ἐκεῖθεν φύσεως καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, τὸ κατὰ τὴν γένεσιν λέγω, συμμετέσχε διὰ τούτου καὶ τῶν λοιπῶν τῶν ἐν ἐκείνῃ θεωρουμένων τῇ φύσει. Οὐ γὰρ κατὰ τὸν θυμόν ἐστι τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἡ πρὸς τὸ Θεῖον ὁμοίωσις, οὔτε διὰ τῆς ἡδονῆς ἡ ὑπερέχουσα χαρακτηρίζεται φύσις, δειλία τε καὶ θράσος, καὶ ἡ τοῦ πλείονος ἔφεσις, καὶ τὸ πρὸς τὸ ἐλαττοῦσθαι μῖσος, καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα πόῤῥω τοῦ θεοπρεποῦς χαρακτῆρός ἐστι. Ταῦτα τοίνυν ἐκ τοῦ ἀλόγου μέρους ἡ ἀνθρωπίνη φύσις πρὸς ἑαυτὴν ἐφειλκύσατο. Οἷς γὰρ ἡ ἄλογος ζωὴ πρὸς συντήρησιν ἑαυτῆς ἠσφαλίσθη, ταῦτα πρὸς τὸν ἀνθρώπινον μετενεχθέντα βίον, πάθη ἐγένετο. Θυμῷ μὲν γὰρ συντηρεῖται τὰ ὠμοβόρα· φιληδονία δὲ τὰ πολυγονοῦντα τῶν ζώων σώζει· τὸν ἄναλκιν ἡ δειλία, καὶ τὸν εὐάλωτον τοῖς ἰσχυροτέροις ὁ φόβος, τὸν δὲ πολύσαρκον ἡ λαιμαργία. Καὶ τὸ διαμαρτεῖν οὑτινοσοῦν τῶν καθ' ἡδονὴν, λύπης ὑπό θεσις ἐν τοῖς ἀλόγοις ἐστί. Ταῦτα πάντα καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα διὰ τῆς κτηνώδους γενέσεως συνεισῆλθε τῇ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου κατασκευῇ. Καί μοι συγκεχωρήσθω κατά τινα πλαστικὴν θαυματοποιΐαν διαγράψαι τῷ λόγῳ τὴν ἀνθρωπίνην εἰκόνα. Καθάπερ γὰρ ἔστιν ἰδεῖν ἐν τοῖς πλάσμασι τὰς διγλύφους μορφὰς, ἃς μηχανῶνται πρὸς ἔκπληξιν τῶν ἐντυγχανόντων οἱ τὰ τοιαῦτα φιλοτεχνοῦντες, μιᾷ κεφαλῇ δύο μορφὰς προσώπων ὑποχαράσσοντες· οὕτω μοι δοκεῖ διπλῆν φέρειν ὁ ἄνθρωπος πρὸς τὰ ἐναντία τὴν ὁμοιότητα· τῷ μὲν θεοειδεῖ τῆς διανοίας πρὸς τὸ θεῖον κάλλος μεμορφωμένος, ταῖς δὲ κατὰ πάθος ἐγγινομέναις ὁρμαῖς πρὸς τὸ κτηνῶδες φέρων τὴν οἰκειότητα. Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ ὁ λόγος ἀποκτηνοῦται διὰ τῆς πρὸς τὸ ἄλογον ῥοπῆς τε καὶ διαθέσεως, συγκαλύπτων τὸ κρεῖττον τῷ χείρονι. Ἐπειδὰν γάρ τις πρὸς ταῦτα τὴν διανοητικὴν ἐνέργειαν καθελκύσῃ, καὶ ὑπηρέτην γενέσθαι τῶν παθῶν τὸν λογισμὸν ἐκβιάσηται, παρα τροπή τις γίνεται τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ χαρακτῆρος πρὸς τὴν ἄλογον εἰκόνα, πάσης πρὸς τοῦτο μεταχαρασσομένης τῆς φύσεως, καθάπερ γεωργοῦντος τοῦ λογισμοῦ τὰς τῶν παθημάτων ἀρχὰς, καὶ δι' ὀλίγων εἰς πλῆθος ἐπαύξοντος. Τὴν γὰρ παρ' ἑαυτοῦ συνεργίαν χρήσας τῷ πάθει, πολύχουν καὶ ἀμφιλαφῆ τὴν τῶν ἀτόπων γένεσιν ἀπειργάσατο. Οὕτως ἡ φιληδονία τὴν μὲν ἀρχὴν ἔσχεν ἐκ τῆς πρὸς τὸ ἄλογον ὁμοιώσεως, ἀλλ' ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρωπίνοις πλημμελήμασι προσηυξήθη, τοσαύτας διαφορὰς τῶν κατὰ τὴν ἡδονὴν ἁμαρτα νομένων γεννήσασα, ὅσας ἐν τοῖς ἀλόγοις οὐκ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν. Οὕτως ἡ πρὸς τὸν θυμὸν διανάστασις συγ γενὴς μέν ἐστι τῇ τῶν ἀλόγων ὁρμῇ, αὔξεται δὲ τῇ τῶν λογισμῶν συμμαχίᾳ. Ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἡ μῆνις, ὁ φθόνος, τὸ ψεῦδος, ἡ ἐπιβουλὴ, ἡ ὑπόκρισις. Ταῦτα πάντα τῆς πονηρᾶς τοῦ νοῦ γεωργίας ἐστίν. Εἰ γὰρ γυμνωθείη τῆς ἐκ τῶν λογισμῶν συμμαχίας τὸ πάθος, ὠκύμορός τις καὶ ἄτονος ὁ θυμὸς καταλείπεται, πομφόλυγος δίκην ὁμοῦ τε γινόμενος, καὶ εὐθὺς ἀπολλύμενος. Οὕτως ἡ τῶν συῶν λαιμαργία τὴν πλεονεξίαν εἰσήνεγκε, καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἵππου γαῦρον γέγονε τῆς ὑπερ ηφανίας ἀρχή· καὶ τὰ καθ' ἕκαστον πάντα τῆς κτηνώδους ἀλογίας ἀφορμηθέντα, διὰ τῆς πονηρᾶς τοῦ νοῦ χρήσεως κακία ἐγένετο, ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ τὸ ἔμπαλιν, εἴπερ ὁ λογισμὸς τῶν τοιούτων κινημάτων ἀντιμεταλάβοι τὸ κράτος, εἰς ἀρετῆς εἶδος ἕκαστον τούτων ἀντιμεθίσταται. Ποιεῖ γὰρ ὁ μὲν θυμὸς τὴν ἀνδρίαν, τὸ δὲ δειλὸν τὴν ἀσφάλειαν, καὶ ὁ φόβος τὴν εὐπείθειαν, τὸ μῖσος δὲ τὴν τῆς κακίας ἀποστροφὴν, ἡ δὲ ἀγαπητικὴ δύναμις τὴν πρὸς τὸ ἀληθῶς καλὸν ἐπιθυμίαν. Τὸ δὲ γαῦρον τοῦ ἤθους ὑπεραίρει τῶν παθημάτων, καὶ ἀδούλωτον ὑπὸ τοῦ κακοῦ διαφυλάσσει τὸ φρόνημα. Ἐπαινεῖ δὲ τὸ τοιοῦτον τῆς ἐπάρσεως εἶδος καὶ ὁ μέγας Ἀπόστολος, συνεχῶς ἐγκελευόμενος τὰ ἄνω φρονεῖν. Καὶ οὕτως ἔστιν εὑρεῖν, ὅτι πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον κίνημα τῷ ὑψηλῷ τῆς διανοίας συνεπαιρόμενον, τῷ κατὰ τὴν θείαν εἰκόνα κάλλει συσχηματίζεται. Ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ βαρεῖά τίς ἐστι καὶ κατωφερὴς ἡ τῆς ἁμαρτίας ῥοπὴ, πλεῖον τὸ ἕτερον γίνεται· μᾶλλον γὰρ τῷ βάρει τῆς ἀλόγου φύσεως συγκατασπᾶται τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς, ἥπερ τῷ ὕψει τῆς διανοίας τὸ βαρύ τε καὶ χοϊκὸν ἀνυψοῦται. Διὰ τοῦτο πολλάκις ἀγνοεῖσθαι ποιεῖ τὸ θεῖον δῶρον ἡ περὶ ἡμᾶς ἀθλιότης, οἷον προσωπεῖον εἰδεχθὲς τῷ κατὰ τὴν εἰκόνα κάλλει τὰ πάθη τῆς σαρκὸς ἐπιπλάσσουσα. Οὐκοῦν συγγνωστοί πώς εἰσιν οἱ πρὸς τὰ τοιαῦτα βλέποντες, εἶτα τὴν θείαν μορφὴν ἐν τούτοις εἶναι οὐκ εὐχερῶς συντιθέμενοι. Ἀλλὰ διὰ τῶν κατωρθωκότων τὸν βίον, ἔξεστι τὴν θείαν ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις εἰκόνα βλέπειν. Εἰ γὰρ ἐμπαθής τις καὶ σάρκινος ὢν ἀπιστεῖσθαι ποιεῖ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ὡς θείῳ κάλλει κεκοσμημένον· ὁ ὑψηλὸς πάντως τὴν ἀρετὴν καὶ καθαρεύων ἐκ μολυσμάτων βεβαιώσει σοι τὴν πρὸς τὸ κρεῖττον ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ὑπόληψιν. Οἷον κρεῖττον γὰρ ἐν ὑποδείγματι δεῖξαι τὸν λόγον· ἀπήλειψε τῷ τῆς πονηρίας μολύσματι τὸ τῆς φύσεως κάλλος τις τῶν ἐπὶ κακίᾳ γνωρίμων, Ἰεχονίας τυχὸν, ἢ εἴ τις ἕτερος ἐπὶ κακῷ μνημονεύεται· ἀλλ' ἐν Μωϋσῇ καὶ τοῖς κατ' ἐκεῖνον καθαρὰ διεφυλάχθη ἡ τῆς εἰκόνος μορφή. Ἐν οἷς τοίνυν οὐκ ἠμαυρώθη τὸ κάλλος, ἐν τούτοις ἐναργὴς ἡ τῶν λεγομένων πίστις ἐστὶν, ὅτι ἄνθρωπος τοῦ Θεοῦ μίμημα γέγονεν. Ἅγιος Γρηγόριος Νύσσης, Περὶ Κατασκευής Ἀνθρωπου

For I think that from this beginning each passion issues as from a spring and pouring together their flood over man's life. And proof of such words is the similarity of passions which appear alike in us and in irrational creatures. For it is not right that to the human nature which was fashioned in the Divine likeness to ascribe the first beginnings of our liability to passion, but as irrational life first entered into the world, and man, for the reason already mentioned, took something of their nature, according to the mode of generation, at the same time he likewise took a share of the other things seen in that nature. For the likeness of man to God is not found in anger, nor is pleasure a mark of superior nature; both cowardice and boldness, and the desire for gain, and the hatred of loss, and all things like these are far from the stamp of Divinity. These parts, then, human nature took to itself from the irrational creatures; for those things bestowed on the irrational for its preservation, being transferred to human life, became passions. For carnivorous animals are preserved by anger, and those which breed a lot are maintained by love of pleasure; cowardice does the same for the weak, fear that which is easily siezed by the more powerful, and greediness those of great mass. And the lack of anything that tends to pleasure is for the irrational a matter of pain. All these things entered man's composition on account of the animal mode of generation. Let it be allowed to me to describe the human image by comparison with some wonderous modelling. For, just as it may be seen in models those carved shapes which the artificers of such things contrive for the wonder of beholders, tracing out upon a single head two forms of faces; so man seems to me to bear a double likeness to opposite things, being shaped in the Divine form of his mind to the Divine beauty, but bearing, on account of the passionate impulses that arise in him, a likeness to creatures. And often his reason is undone, through his inclination and disposition towards what is irrational, obscuring the better with the worse. For whenever a man drags down his intellectual energy to these things, and forces reason to become the servant of passions, there takes place a sort of turning of the good stamp into the irrational image, his whole nature being transfomed according to it, as his reason cultivates the beginnings of his passions, and little by little multiplies them. For becoming an aid to passion, it produces a plenteous and vast crop of disgusting things. Thus love of pleasure has its beginning in likeness to irrational things and by the transgressions of men was increased, becoming the generetor of so many different sins arising from pleasure as we do not find among the irrational animals. Thus the rising of anger in us is indeed akin to the impulse of the brutes, but it grows by the alliance of thought. For thence come malignity, envy, deceit, conspiracy, hypocrisy. All these are the result of the evil cultivation of the mind. For if the passion were stripped of the aid it receives from thought, the anger remaining is short-lived and dull, being like a bubble that pops almost as soon as it comes into existance. Thus the greediness of swine introduces covetousness, and the haughty nature of the horse becomes the origin of pride, and so with all things that proceed from want of reason in irrational nature, they become vice by the evil use of the mind, and, then, likewise, again, if reason instead has power over such things, each of them is transformed into a type of virtue. For anger turns into courage, terror caution, fear obedience, hatred aversion to vice, the power of love the desire for what is truly beautiful. The haughtiness in a character raises him above the passions, and releases it from bondage to what is base. The great Apostle himself praised such a form of mental elevation exhorting us constantly to think those things that are above. 1 And thus we find that every such motion, when elevated by loftiness of intellect, is conformed to the beauty of the Divine image. But since the other impulse is greater and the tendency of sin is heavy and downward; the ruling element of our soul is more inclined to be dragged downwards by the weight of the irrational nature than is the heavy and earthy element to be lifted up by the elevated intellect. And so the wretchedness that often encompasses us causes the Divine gift to be forgotten, and  like some ugly mask the passions of the flesh are laid over the beauty of the image. Those, therefore, are in some sense excusable, who when they look upon such cases, do not willingly admit that the Divine form is there; But by the correct ordering of life we may yet behold the Divine image in men. For if the man who has been made subject to passion, and carnal, makes it incredible that man was adorned with Divine beauty, surely the man of lofty virtue and pure from defilement will confirm you in the better understanding of human nature. Better it is to show this by example, that one of those noted for wickedness, has obliterated the beauty of his nature by the pollution of wickedness, some Jechoniah, say, or some other of evil memory, yet in Moses and in those like him the form of the image was kept pure. Now where the beauty of the form has not been obscured, there is made plain the faithfulness of the saying that man is an image of God. Saint Gregory of Nyssa, On The Making of Man 1.Col 3:2